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Default Stability of 240v supply under FIT tarrif?

Please, can someone kindly elucidate how a domestic 240V house system maintains a stable voltage when connected to an FIT inverter fed from a pv panel?

One moment it's feeding amps into the local supply, the next it may be extracting them. To get a reversible current flow, there must be a pd (potential difference) between the 2 situations. How does it do this trick? (and avoid flickering lights etc).

Are mirrors involved?

TIA
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jim wrote:
Please, can someone kindly elucidate how a domestic 240V house system maintains a stable voltage when connected to an FIT inverter fed from a pv panel?

One moment it's feeding amps into the local supply, the next it may be extracting them. To get a reversible current flow, there must be a pd (potential difference) between the 2 situations. How does it do this trick? (and avoid flickering lights etc).

Are mirrors involved?

It's all low impedance connections, so you need quite a large current
change to make a noticeable difference in the suply voltage. Anything
other than incandescent light bulbs or very old, non-stabilised power
supplies for TV sets won't really notice less than about a 10% change in
voltage anyway, which should need a current change of 100 amps or moreif
all is in order. As most domestic PV panel sets can't generate more than
about 16A, it's not a problem.

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Default Stability of 240v supply under FIT tarrif?

On 22/09/2013 16:38, jim wrote:

Please, can someone kindly elucidate how a domestic 240V house system
maintains a stable voltage when connected to an FIT inverter fed from
a pv panel?

One moment it's feeding amps into the local supply, the next it may
be extracting them. To get a reversible current flow, there must be
a pd (potential difference) between the 2 situations. How does it do
this trick? (and avoid flickering lights etc).


The potential difference required actually comes from a phase shift in
the locally generated component. Depending on whether its leading or
lagging the waveform supplied via the grid as to whether its drawing or
feeding current. The RMS voltages of both grid and the output of the
local inverter could actually be the same. The local grid tie inverter
will adjust its generated phase relative to the grid voltage to achieve
the required direction of energy transfer.

Are mirrors involved?


Not usually, and hopefully no smoke either ;-)


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John.

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Default Stability of 240v supply under FIT tarrif?

On Sun, 22 Sep 2013 08:38:38 -0700 (PDT), jim wrote:

One moment it's feeding amps into the local supply, the next it may be
extracting them. To get a reversible current flow, there must be a pd
(potential difference) between the 2 situations. How does it do this
trick? (and avoid flickering lights etc).


The volts do change but not enough to notice. The voltage here drops
by about 8 V when the E7 kicks in and 11 kW is instantly applied. A
domestic PV array in bright sunlight produces less than 4 kW, only a
bit above a rapid boil kettle...

Do your lights flicker when you switch on the kettle? We don't notice
the E7 coming on but then we don't have incandescent lights that
would show it far more than anything else.

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Default Stability of 240v supply under FIT tarrif?

On Sunday 22 September 2013 16:38 jim wrote in uk.d-i-y:

Please, can someone kindly elucidate how a domestic 240V house system
maintains a stable voltage when connected to an FIT inverter fed from a pv
panel?

One moment it's feeding amps into the local supply, the next it may be
extracting them. To get a reversible current flow, there must be a pd
(potential difference) between the 2 situations. How does it do this
trick? (and avoid flickering lights etc).

Are mirrors involved?

TIA


Yes, there is a PD, probably in the form of a very slight phase lead/lag.

It is minute. The supply impedance will be less than 0.35ohms (L-N) so 10A
FIT feed would be 3.5V or an equivalent phase shift. Not enough to be
flickering lights.

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Default Stability of 240v supply under FIT tarrif?


"John Rumm" wrote in message
o.uk...
On 22/09/2013 16:38, jim wrote:

Please, can someone kindly elucidate how a domestic 240V house system
maintains a stable voltage when connected to an FIT inverter fed from
a pv panel?

One moment it's feeding amps into the local supply, the next it may
be extracting them. To get a reversible current flow, there must be
a pd (potential difference) between the 2 situations. How does it do
this trick? (and avoid flickering lights etc).


The potential difference required actually comes from a phase shift in the
locally generated component. Depending on whether its leading or lagging
the waveform supplied via the grid as to whether its drawing or feeding
current. The RMS voltages of both grid and the output of the local
inverter could actually be the same. The local grid tie inverter will
adjust its generated phase relative to the grid voltage to achieve the
required direction of energy transfer.


What are you rambling on about?
The previous poster is entirely correct.
As the power output from PVpanels increases, the voltage at the AC output
terminal of the inverter rises.
So "stuffing the electricity back down the spout " so to speak.
My PV panels causes a rise of around 5volts when on full power.
There is no phase shift, the power factor is around unity at all outputs,
there is no transformer.


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Default Stability of 240v supply under FIT tarrif?

On 22/09/13 16:38, jim wrote:
Please, can someone kindly elucidate how a domestic 240V house system maintains a stable voltage when connected to an FIT inverter fed from a pv panel?

One moment it's feeding amps into the local supply, the next it may be extracting them. To get a reversible current flow, there must be a pd (potential difference) between the 2 situations. How does it do this trick? (and avoid flickering lights etc).

Are mirrors involved?


smoke, and mirrors. :-)


however the imdeance of the mains supply is pretty low...
TIA



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lead are elected by the least capable of producing, and where the
members of society least likely to sustain themselves or succeed, are
rewarded with goods and services paid for by the confiscated wealth of a
diminishing number of producers.

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Default Stability of 240v supply under FIT tarrif?


"jim" wrote in message
...
Please, can someone kindly elucidate how a domestic 240V house system
maintains a stable voltage when connected to an FIT inverter fed from a pv
panel?

One moment it's feeding amps into the local supply, the next it may be
extracting them. To get a reversible current flow, there must be a pd
(potential difference) between the 2 situations. How does it do this
trick? (and avoid flickering lights etc).

Are mirrors involved?


You take say four Kw out of the system and the voltage drops by a small
amount.
You stuff four Kw back into the sytem and the voltage rises by the same
amount.
(Everything else being equal).

Most of the energy stuffed back intot the sytem is used by nieghbours so in
fact reducing the load on the system and making it more efficient.

As long as the PV systems are small sytems, dispersed and there are not too
many of them there are no problems.
Large system can present problems and as they become common the problems
will increase.

This is another possible use for smart meters, the remote control of such
systems.


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Default Stability of 240v supply under FIT tarrif?

Far more of an issue is synchronising the frequencies and putting crap on
the local supply or even creating RFI from the inverter in my experience,
which is not much here, but from those who rushed out and got it, there have
been issues.. grin.

Brian

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"John Williamson" wrote in message
...
jim wrote:
Please, can someone kindly elucidate how a domestic 240V house system
maintains a stable voltage when connected to an FIT inverter fed from a
pv panel?

One moment it's feeding amps into the local supply, the next it may be
extracting them. To get a reversible current flow, there must be a pd
(potential difference) between the 2 situations. How does it do this
trick? (and avoid flickering lights etc).

Are mirrors involved?

It's all low impedance connections, so you need quite a large current
change to make a noticeable difference in the suply voltage. Anything
other than incandescent light bulbs or very old, non-stabilised power
supplies for TV sets won't really notice less than about a 10% change in
voltage anyway, which should need a current change of 100 amps or moreif
all is in order. As most domestic PV panel sets can't generate more than
about 16A, it's not a problem.

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Default Stability of 240v supply under FIT tarrif?

Of course a lot of these devices waste power when not a lot is being
generated, and over time I'd suspect this adds up to quite a high amount.
5v is nothing, in any day the mains goes up and down far more than that
amount.
Brian

--
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"harryagain" wrote in message
...

"John Rumm" wrote in message
o.uk...
On 22/09/2013 16:38, jim wrote:

Please, can someone kindly elucidate how a domestic 240V house system
maintains a stable voltage when connected to an FIT inverter fed from
a pv panel?

One moment it's feeding amps into the local supply, the next it may
be extracting them. To get a reversible current flow, there must be
a pd (potential difference) between the 2 situations. How does it do
this trick? (and avoid flickering lights etc).


The potential difference required actually comes from a phase shift in
the locally generated component. Depending on whether its leading or
lagging the waveform supplied via the grid as to whether its drawing or
feeding current. The RMS voltages of both grid and the output of the
local inverter could actually be the same. The local grid tie inverter
will adjust its generated phase relative to the grid voltage to achieve
the required direction of energy transfer.


What are you rambling on about?
The previous poster is entirely correct.
As the power output from PVpanels increases, the voltage at the AC output
terminal of the inverter rises.
So "stuffing the electricity back down the spout " so to speak.
My PV panels causes a rise of around 5volts when on full power.
There is no phase shift, the power factor is around unity at all outputs,
there is no transformer.





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Default Stability of 240v supply under FIT tarrif?

In message o.uk, at
17:30:56 on Sun, 22 Sep 2013, Dave Liquorice
remarked:
A domestic PV array in bright sunlight produces less than 4 kW, only a
bit above a rapid boil kettle...


There's a big poster at my local Sainsbury's which says they generate
enough electricity to boil every kettle in the town. But not
simultaneously I suspect! And mine is a traditional one on gas hob, so
that's a neat trick (maybe my share is the electricity to ignite the
gas...)
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"Brian Gaff" wrote in message
...
Of course a lot of these devices waste power when not a lot is being
generated, and over time I'd suspect this adds up to quite a high amount.
5v is nothing, in any day the mains goes up and down far more than that
amount.
Brian


The inverters in use these days are around 95% efficient. (No transformer)
I think mine uses around 3w on standby.

What are you rambling on about?
The previous poster is entirely correct.
As the power output from PVpanels increases, the voltage at the AC output
terminal of the inverter rises.
So "stuffing the electricity back down the spout " so to speak.
My PV panels causes a rise of around 5volts when on full power.
There is no phase shift, the power factor is around unity at all outputs,
there is no transformer.





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On 23/09/13 07:52, harryagain wrote:
"Brian Gaff" wrote in message
...
Of course a lot of these devices waste power when not a lot is being
generated, and over time I'd suspect this adds up to quite a high amount.
5v is nothing, in any day the mains goes up and down far more than that
amount.
Brian


The inverters in use these days are around 95% efficient. (No transformer)
I think mine uses around 3w on standby.


Harry, the idiot who thnks inverters dont have any transformers.




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members of society least likely to sustain themselves or succeed, are
rewarded with goods and services paid for by the confiscated wealth of a
diminishing number of producers.

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The Natural Philosopher wrote:

Harry, the idiot who thnks inverters dont have any transformers.


Whilst the former is a matter of debate, a lot of the latest
inverters have no transformer, like this:

http://www.sma-uk.com/en_UK/products/solar-inverters/sunny-boy/sunny-boy-3000tl-3600tl-4000tl-5000tl-with-reactive-power-control.html

"...the new transformerless Sunny Boy is the ideal solution..."

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On 22/09/2013 18:07, harryagain wrote:
Most of the energy stuffed back intot the sytem is used by nieghbours so in
fact reducing the load on the system and making it more efficient.


Locally perhaps, nationally unlikely. The big generators can't be easily
throttled up and down, and lose efficiency when this has to be done.

Andy


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On Mon, 23 Sep 2013 07:45:01 +0100, Roland Perry wrote:

A domestic PV array in bright sunlight produces less than 4 kW,

only a
bit above a rapid boil kettle...


There's a big poster at my local Sainsbury's which says they generate
enough electricity to boil every kettle in the town. But not
simultaneously I suspect!


Greenwash... if they are that proud of their solar PV why don't they
have a big meter showing the total store consumption and what
percentage of that is coming from the PV, both instantaneous and
averaged over lets say a week.

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In message o.uk, at
09:07:34 on Mon, 23 Sep 2013, Dave Liquorice
remarked:
A domestic PV array in bright sunlight produces less than 4 kW,

only a
bit above a rapid boil kettle...


There's a big poster at my local Sainsbury's which says they generate
enough electricity to boil every kettle in the town. But not
simultaneously I suspect!


Greenwash...


Not the only example, they also say they are using LED lights in their
(semi-underground) car park to save energy, but it's obvious they are
fluorescents.

if they are that proud of their solar PV why don't they
have a big meter showing the total store consumption and what
percentage of that is coming from the PV, both instantaneous and
averaged over lets say a week.


--
Roland Perry
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On Monday, September 23, 2013 9:42:59 AM UTC+1, Roland Perry wrote:
In message o.uk, at
09:07:34 on Mon, 23 Sep 2013, Dave Liquorice
remarked:


There's a big poster at my local Sainsbury's which says they generate
enough electricity to boil every kettle in the town. But not
simultaneously I suspect!


Greenwash...

Not the only example, they also say they are using LED lights in their
(semi-underground) car park to save energy, but it's obvious they are
fluorescents.


2 Leds in an emergency exit sign

if they are that proud of their solar PV why don't they
have a big meter showing the total store consumption and what
percentage of that is coming from the PV, both instantaneous and
averaged over lets say a week.


weird how thats seen as a good thing
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On Mon, 23 Sep 2013 09:42:59 +0100, Roland Perry wrote:

Not the only example, they also say they are using LED lights in their
(semi-underground) car park to save energy, but it's obvious they are
fluorescents.


Are you sure? There are LED strip lights that fit standard florry
fittings, not sure it would be very easy to tell what the light
source is behind a diffuser...

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On 23/09/13 08:29, Chris J Dixon wrote:
The Natural Philosopher wrote:

Harry, the idiot who thnks inverters dont have any transformers.


Whilst the former is a matter of debate, a lot of the latest
inverters have no transformer, like this:

http://www.sma-uk.com/en_UK/products/solar-inverters/sunny-boy/sunny-boy-3000tl-3600tl-4000tl-5000tl-with-reactive-power-control.html

"...the new transformerless Sunny Boy is the ideal solution..."

Chris

just because the sales blurb says it is transformerless doesnt mean it is.


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members of society least likely to sustain themselves or succeed, are
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diminishing number of producers.

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On 23/09/13 12:03, Dave Liquorice wrote:


What is weird about giving the true facts?

Dunno, but its a total rarity in any discussions about energy generation.

After considerable thought I have decided that the most succinct thing
to be asiad about what 'everybody knows' and what 'everybody syays'
about electrical power generation is that it's *completely wrong*.



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On Mon, 23 Sep 2013 12:48:01 +0100, The Natural Philosopher
wrote:

On 23/09/13 08:29, Chris J Dixon wrote:
The Natural Philosopher wrote:

Harry, the idiot who thnks inverters dont have any transformers.


Whilst the former is a matter of debate, a lot of the latest
inverters have no transformer, like this:

http://www.sma-uk.com/en_UK/products/solar-inverters/sunny-boy/sunny-boy-3000tl-3600tl-4000tl-5000tl-with-reactive-power-control.html

"...the new transformerless Sunny Boy is the ideal solution..."

Chris

just because the sales blurb says it is transformerless doesnt mean it is.


But in this case they are transformerless. That can give rise to some
interesting problems though.

http://files.sma.de/dl/7418/PID-TI-UEN113410.pdf
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In article , The Natural Philosopher
scribeth thus
On 23/09/13 08:29, Chris J Dixon wrote:
The Natural Philosopher wrote:

Harry, the idiot who thnks inverters dont have any transformers.


Whilst the former is a matter of debate, a lot of the latest
inverters have no transformer, like this:

http://www.sma-uk.com/en_UK/products...boy/sunny-boy-

3000tl-3600tl-4000tl-5000tl-with-reactive-power-control.html

"...the new transformerless Sunny Boy is the ideal solution..."

Chris

just because the sales blurb says it is transformerless doesnt mean it is.



How to they do the AC generation anyone know,? without any transformers
or I presume inductive elements?.

Is it all Capactive and how do they perform Galvanic isolation between
the mains and the panels, surely theres no direct connection?..

--
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tony sayer wrote:

How to they do the AC generation anyone know,? without any transformers
or I presume inductive elements?.

Is it all Capactive and how do they perform Galvanic isolation between
the mains and the panels, surely theres no direct connection?..


Without a transformer, there is _no_ galvanic isolation.

Have a look at page 22 (14 of the .pdf), onwards in this
document.

"Photovoltaics in Buildings Guide to the installation of PV
systems 2nd Edition"

http://www.bre.co.uk/filelibrary/pdf/rpts/Guide_to_the_installation_of_PV_systems_2nd_Editio n.pdf

There is a decision chart which I am not going to reproduce, but
the key details for average installs are

"...it is the electrical separation of the mains from the d.c.
using an isolating transformer that is the key determining factor
when assessing the requirement for array frame earthing."

"..freestanding ground mounted, or building roof mounted arrays
(away from building metalwork) will normally not be within the
equipotential zone."

"Where the incoming supply is PME (the majority of domestic
supply arrangements), the PME earth cannot be taken outside the
equipotential zone. This is to prevent the potential shock hazard
should the supply neutral ever be lost."

"Install & bond to earth spike (Note: do not take PME out of
equipotential Zone) (Note: Use 10 mm2 braid or equiv) "

Chris
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In message o.uk, at
12:01:47 on Mon, 23 Sep 2013, Dave Liquorice
remarked:
Not the only example, they also say they are using LED lights in their
(semi-underground) car park to save energy, but it's obvious they are
fluorescents.


Are you sure? There are LED strip lights that fit standard florry
fittings, not sure it would be very easy to tell what the light
source is behind a diffuser...


Wouldn't they have numerous point sources visible (if only with a few
percent difference in brightness), rather than one long source?
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On 23/09/2013 15:16, tony sayer wrote:

Is it all Capactive and how do they perform Galvanic isolation between
the mains and the panels, surely theres no direct connection?..


IIRC until recently the yanks banned non transformer inverters for grid
tie applications because of the lack of isolation.


--
Cheers,

John.

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On Mon, 23 Sep 2013 08:33:24 +0100, Vir Campestris
wrote:

On 22/09/2013 18:07, harryagain wrote:
Most of the energy stuffed back intot the sytem is used by nieghbours so in
fact reducing the load on the system and making it more efficient.


Locally perhaps, nationally unlikely. The big generators can't be easily
throttled up and down, and lose efficiency when this has to be done.


Because of where it is metered, that is beyond the location of bulk supply
points, all UK domestic solar is viewed as reduced demand. Currently it is of
such a low level that it is operationally lost in the noise.


--
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On 23/09/13 20:56, The Other Mike wrote:
On Mon, 23 Sep 2013 08:33:24 +0100, Vir Campestris
wrote:

On 22/09/2013 18:07, harryagain wrote:
Most of the energy stuffed back intot the sytem is used by nieghbours so in
fact reducing the load on the system and making it more efficient.


Locally perhaps, nationally unlikely. The big generators can't be easily
throttled up and down, and lose efficiency when this has to be done.


Because of where it is metered, that is beyond the location of bulk supply
points, all UK domestic solar is viewed as reduced demand. Currently it is of
such a low level that it is operationally lost in the noise.


Exactly so. A cosmetic solution to a non-existent problem and if wind is
anything to go by, one that's being pretty much abused by the FIT/ROC
claimants.

Its odd how wind that isn't centrally metered seems to operate at a much
higher capacity factor than wind that IS centrally metered...

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rewarded with goods and services paid for by the confiscated wealth of a
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BruceB wrote:

That document is out of date now and the third edition is current,
published on the MCS site in the installer standards section.
http://www.microgenerationcertification.org/images/PV%20Book%20ELECTRONIC.pdf
It relaxes the requirement for earthing/bonding arrays a bit.

Thanks for that, I haven't been keeping up. Interesting document.

Chris
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"The Natural Philosopher" wrote in message
...
On 23/09/13 07:52, harryagain wrote:
"Brian Gaff" wrote in message
...
Of course a lot of these devices waste power when not a lot is being
generated, and over time I'd suspect this adds up to quite a high
amount.
5v is nothing, in any day the mains goes up and down far more than that
amount.
Brian


The inverters in use these days are around 95% efficient. (No
transformer)
I think mine uses around 3w on standby.


Harry, the idiot who thnks inverters dont have any transformers.


Hey ****fer brains.
All small parallel operation PV sytems have transformerless inverters these
days.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grid-ti...ter#Technology


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"tony sayer" wrote in message
...
In article , The Natural Philosopher
scribeth thus
On 23/09/13 08:29, Chris J Dixon wrote:
The Natural Philosopher wrote:

Harry, the idiot who thnks inverters dont have any transformers.

Whilst the former is a matter of debate, a lot of the latest
inverters have no transformer, like this:

http://www.sma-uk.com/en_UK/products...boy/sunny-boy-

3000tl-3600tl-4000tl-5000tl-with-reactive-power-control.html

"...the new transformerless Sunny Boy is the ideal solution..."

Chris

just because the sales blurb says it is transformerless doesnt mean it is.



How to they do the AC generation anyone know,? without any transformers
or I presume inductive elements?.

Is it all Capactive and how do they perform Galvanic isolation between
the mains and the panels, surely theres no direct connection?..



They have capacitor(s) which store energy as the AC volts cycle dips below
the DC volts from the PV array.
When working on them, you have to give the automatic discharge system time
to work before fiddling about inside.


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"John Rumm" wrote in message
o.uk...
On 23/09/2013 15:16, tony sayer wrote:

Is it all Capactive and how do they perform Galvanic isolation between
the mains and the panels, surely theres no direct connection?..


IIRC until recently the yanks banned non transformer inverters for grid
tie applications because of the lack of isolation.



In days of yore the PV array ran at very low voltages (panels in parallel) &
a tranformer was neccesary.
In domestic arrays they are all in series these day,running at around
600-700 volts


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"Dave Liquorice" wrote in message
ll.co.uk...
On Sun, 22 Sep 2013 08:38:38 -0700 (PDT), jim wrote:

One moment it's feeding amps into the local supply, the next it may be
extracting them. To get a reversible current flow, there must be a pd
(potential difference) between the 2 situations. How does it do this
trick? (and avoid flickering lights etc).


The volts do change but not enough to notice. The voltage here drops
by about 8 V when the E7 kicks in and 11 kW is instantly applied. A
domestic PV array in bright sunlight produces less than 4 kW, only a
bit above a rapid boil kettle...


Arrays cab be as big as you like/can fit in/afford.

The reason many are sub4Kw is that the smallest charge (money) band is
0-4Kw.
The next is 4-10Kw, too big to fir on most domestic house roofs.




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"Dave Liquorice" wrote in message
ll.co.uk...
On Mon, 23 Sep 2013 07:45:01 +0100, Roland Perry wrote:

A domestic PV array in bright sunlight produces less than 4 kW,

only a
bit above a rapid boil kettle...


There's a big poster at my local Sainsbury's which says they generate
enough electricity to boil every kettle in the town. But not
simultaneously I suspect!


Greenwash... if they are that proud of their solar PV why don't they
have a big meter showing the total store consumption and what
percentage of that is coming from the PV, both instantaneous and
averaged over lets say a week.


No reason at all why not. But the average Saintsbury shopper won't
understand the numbers.


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"Roland Perry" wrote in message
...
In message o.uk, at
09:07:34 on Mon, 23 Sep 2013, Dave Liquorice
remarked:
A domestic PV array in bright sunlight produces less than 4 kW,

only a
bit above a rapid boil kettle...

There's a big poster at my local Sainsbury's which says they generate
enough electricity to boil every kettle in the town. But not
simultaneously I suspect!


Greenwash...


Not the only example, they also say they are using LED lights in their
(semi-underground) car park to save energy, but it's obvious they are
fluorescents.



Why is it obvious?
Some LED tubes fit into fluorescent light bodies.
http://www.earlsmann.co.uk/sections/product/id/15
It could be just you is thick?


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"The Natural Philosopher" wrote in message
...
On 23/09/13 12:03, Dave Liquorice wrote:


What is weird about giving the true facts?

Dunno, but its a total rarity in any discussions about energy generation.

After considerable thought I have decided that the most succinct thing to
be asiad about what 'everybody knows' and what 'everybody syays' about
electrical power generation is that it's *completely wrong*.



Well you certainly know nothing about inverters.


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harryagain wrote:

Arrays cab be as big as you like/can fit in/afford.

The reason many are sub4Kw is that the smallest charge (money) band is
0-4Kw.


I think you mean highest, in that above 4 kWp the FIT is lower.

The next is 4-10Kw, too big to fir on most domestic house roofs.

and requiring specific acceptance by your DNO.

Chris
--
Chris J Dixon Nottingham UK


Plant amazing Acers.
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On 24/09/13 09:07, harryagain wrote:
"The Natural Philosopher" wrote in message
...
On 23/09/13 12:03, Dave Liquorice wrote:


What is weird about giving the true facts?

Dunno, but its a total rarity in any discussions about energy generation.

After considerable thought I have decided that the most succinct thing to
be asiad about what 'everybody knows' and what 'everybody syays' about
electrical power generation is that it's *completely wrong*.



Well you certainly know nothing about inverters.


I've designed more of them than you have had solar panels fitted.

--
Ineptocracy

(in-ep-toc-ra-cy) €“ a system of government where the least capable to
lead are elected by the least capable of producing, and where the
members of society least likely to sustain themselves or succeed, are
rewarded with goods and services paid for by the confiscated wealth of a
diminishing number of producers.

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